Reading Okinawa

1. Introduction

“Bōheitai” depicts the experiences of unarmed Okinawan soldiers near the end of the Battle of Okinawa. The story was first published in Shinchō, a small national magazine, in December 1958. Notably, this marked Ōshiro’s debut as a professional writer. In 1982, the story was republished in Kakuteru pātī alongside “Kamenokobaka,” “Nisei,” “Gyakō no nakade,” “Kakuteru pātī,” and “Shōrī no dashutsu.”
 

2. Character List

Kuba　久場

Kuba is the protagonist. An Okinawan serving in the Okinawan Defense Forces, he was unable to join the Japanese army due to illness. He frequently advises Tomimura but hesitates to recognize him fully as commander.

Tomimura　富村

Tomimura, from Okinawa, worked as a deputy head teacher at a national school in Nakijin before the war. As unit commander, he remains calm under shelling but fears dying due to his fellow soldiers’ incompetence.

Akamine　赤嶺

Akamine is a sixty-year-old man who often misuses standard Japanese. Most notably, he mistakenly calls the bōeitai(defense forces) “bōheitai” (stick soldiers).

Nakada　仲田

Nakada is a sixteen-year-old Okinawan from Shuri. Though terrified of death and enemy attacks, he is physically strong and energetic.

Satō　佐藤

Satō is a second lieutenant from mainland Japan. Despite his rank, he still feels like a student and openly despises Okinawans.

Sergeant Major　曹長

The Sergeant Major, from mainland Japan, outranks most soldiers in practice despite being below Satō formally. He functions as the shelter’s de facto leader.
 

3. Plot Summary

Section 1 (69–71)

Following a transfer order, Tomimura leads Kuba and twenty-five others—including a sixteen-year-old boy and a sixty-year-old man—into a gama, a cave repurposed as a trench. Inside, they encounter the saber and badge of a Japanese officer and are overwhelmed by the stench of sweat, pus, and mold. Akamine explains that they were conscripted in G Village into the Okinawan Defense Forces, which lack both weapons and food. The officer regards them as burdens and suspects them of espionage, prompting Tomimura to order the men to leave.

Section 2 (71–4)

Ten days earlier, about two hundred men in G Village had been conscripted and divided into five units, with Tomimura assigned as leader of one. He does not know the fate of the others. Ordered to move toward an air-raid shelter in Shuri, his group immediately loses ten men to shelling. As Shuri is reduced to ruins, Tomimura questions the meaning of their mission.

Fearing imminent death, Tomimura considers disbanding the unit. During nighttime bombardment, he remains calm but worries about his soldiers’ ineptitude. When he allows the men to leave, one soldier jumps into a pond and drowns.

Section 3 (74–8)

After two days without finding shelter, several men collapse. The Sergeant Major finds them and escorts them to an air-raid shelter, where Okinawan soldiers are tasked with fetching water from a spring outside. Due to naval bombardment, this task is extremely dangerous.

Although Satō orders the water runs stopped, the Sergeant Major continues them in the evenings, recognizing their necessity for the two hundred soldiers inside, many of whom are sick or wounded. Tomimura accepts the assignment, but several Okinawan soldiers die fetching water.

Satō claims Japanese shock troops are successfully resisting American forces and asserts that Americans will not kill Okinawans. Although relieved, the Okinawan soldiers doubt him. Akamine recalls his son and begins to cry.

Section 4 (78–83)

Kuba, Tomimura, and Nakada secretly meet to discuss their situation, away from Japanese soldiers. Realizing Nakada’s home in Shuri has likely been destroyed, they discuss Satō. Nakada suspects he is a spy; Kuba disagrees but remains wary.

Later, another Japanese unit arrives and openly mistreats the Okinawan soldiers, forcing them to draw water even during daylight. Tomimura considers escape but learns that Okinawan prisoners are widely suspected of being American spies. Leaving would only confirm such suspicions.

Satō orders Tomimura’s unit to carry ammunition to headquarters. Divided into groups of three, they are given hand grenades for suicide—the first weapons they have received.

Section 5 (83–8)

On the way, Kuba, Nakada, and Akamine hide in an Okinawan tomb. A filthy man joins them, followed by a woman and her daughter who wish to die at home. Nakada goes with them. Soon after, a massive explosion occurs, leaving a crater. Nakada and the women vanish, and Kuba and Akamine flee.

Section 6 (88–9)

Exhausted, Kuba and Akamine collapse near a well. A Japanese soldier confronts them, accusing them of giving false directions. Although they do not recall this, he suddenly accuses them of spying and shoots Akamine.

Section 7 (89)

Alone, Kuba wanders aimlessly. Refugees speak to him, but he does not respond. One shoe falls off, yet he continues walking.
 
Commentary

The story derives its tension from the conflict between Okinawan Defense Forces and mainland Japanese soldiers. Dependent on Japanese troops for survival, the Okinawans’ fate hinges on mutual distrust, despite sharing a common enemy. Unarmed and equipped only with bamboo spears, the “stick soldiers” occupy a structurally weaker position. As the narrative progresses, they are increasingly abandoned, leading to widespread death. By the end, only Kuba remains, and even his survival is uncertain.
 


4. Setting

Although not explicitly stated, the story is set in Ginowan, Shuri, and Yonahadake during the final phase of the Battle of Okinawa. The reference to G Village suggests Ginowan as the base of conscription. Section five specifies the date as May 28 and notes the Japanese military’s withdrawal from Shuri to southern Okinawa.
 


5. Point of View

The narration is omniscient but centers on the Okinawan soldiers’ thoughts and experiences. Initially, it follows both Kuba and Tomimura, but gradually narrows to Kuba alone by section six. While reliable, this perspective renders Japanese soldiers opaque, emphasizing the unequal power relationship. By focusing on Kuba, Ōshiro underscores Okinawan powerlessness and abandonment.
 


6. Symbolism and Imagery

The Bōheitai (Stick Soldiers)

The title’s symbolism emerges when Akamine mistakenly calls the defense forces “stick soldiers.” While humorous, the error exposes the absurdity—and danger—of deploying unarmed civilians as soldiers. Arbitrarily organized and poorly trained, these men were sent into combat conditions without weapons. The bōheitai thus symbolize Okinawans’ exploitation and forced participation in lethal labor without protection.
 

7. Historical Background

Local Defense Forces in Okinawa during the War

Immediately before the Battle of Okinawa, the Japanese military hastily organized Local Defense Forces composed mainly of junior high and high school boys. Although intended for logistical support, they were often used in combat emergencies.

Shuri Castle Headquarters

During the battle, Japanese forces established headquarters beneath Shuri Castle. Behind an iron door lay a one-kilometer-long underground passage containing offices, operations rooms, and kitchens.

Shock Troops

Shock troops were given grenades to detonate while charging American forces. These missions were often assigned to captured civilians, including children.
 

8. Cultural Background

Relationship between Okinawa and Japan

Since the Ryukyu Kingdom period, Okinawa has been treated as Japan’s periphery and viewed as backward. This perception shaped wartime policies, turning Okinawa into a battlefield to protect mainland Japan. After Japan’s defeat, Okinawa became host to extensive U.S. military bases.
 

9. Criticism

Onishi, Yasumitsu. “Okinawa Kioku to Kokuhatu no bungaku.” Medorum Shun no egaku shihai to bōryoku [Medoruma Shun’s Depictions of Domination and Violence]. Tokyo: Ōtsuku, 2019. 246–64.

Onishi Yasumitsu compares Ōshiro Tatsuhiro with Medoruma Shun, emphasizing their shared depiction of Okinawans suspected of espionage. He argues that Bōheitai accurately captures Okinawans’ marginal position, regardless of their loyalty. According to Onishi, even when Okinawans attempted to demonstrate patriotism, they could not escape suspicion.

He also observes that the most dangerous tasks were assigned to the bōheitai. As deaths accumulate, the narrative focus shifts from Tomimura to Kuba, relativizing authority and highlighting Kuba’s growing wariness toward both Japanese soldiers and the military structure itself.

Onishi further notes the effective use of Akamine’s uchināguchi. Although Akamine is forbidden from speaking it, he mispronounces standard Japanese terms such as “spy.” Ironically, those unable to pronounce the word correctly are precisely the ones accused of being spies. Onishi concludes that Akamine’s lifelong immersion in traditional Okinawan culture prevents him from being recognized as fully Japanese.
 
Fujii, Takashi. “The Story of Internal Conflict over the Battle of Okinawa.” Review of “Bōheitai” by Ōshiro Tatsuhiro. Okinawa Cultural Institute, 31 March 2017. 131–157. Print.

Fujii Takashi situates Bōheitai within depictions of the Battle of Okinawa that focus on non-combatants enduring extreme battlefield conditions. He argues that Okinawan culture has historically been shaped by external forces while still maintaining a sense of independence.

Fujii emphasizes that inadequately trained civilians were forcibly mobilized, even when they lacked weapons or military preparation, resulting in unnecessary casualties. He attributes much of this failure to the gap between Japanese and Okinawan soldiers and to pervasive mistrust within the military.

By comparing Kuba and Tomimura and their respective relationships with Japanese soldiers, Fujii argues that the bōheitai were misused in a war they could not fully comprehend. Ōshiro thus exposes the internal conflict between Okinawan soldiers and the Japanese military that exploited them.
 

10. Themes
 

Okinawans Suspected of Being Spies

The story illustrates the impossible position of Okinawan soldiers, who risk execution whether they obey or resist Japanese orders. Fetching water invites American bombardment; refusal invites accusations of espionage. Even loyalty offers only the possibility of avoiding suspicion. Akamine’s death epitomizes this trap.

Okinawan Identity Conflict

Ōshiro portrays Okinawans’ struggle between Japanese assimilation and cultural difference. Language becomes a key marker: Akamine’s mispronunciations expose his vulnerability, culminating in his execution as a “spy.” The conflict between Kuba and Tomimura further reflects internal divisions, as loyalty to Japan clashes with survival instincts. Ultimately, the story reveals the deep psychological strain of wartime identity conflict.
 
 
11. Discussion Questions
 
1. Why do the Japanese soldiers laugh at Akamine’s comments in the first scene of the story?
 
2. Why can’t Kuba call Tomimura by his rank? What does this suggest about their relationship?
 
3. Why did the Okinawa soldier jump into the pond when they were told they could go home?
 
4. What does the sergeant major think of the Okinawan regiment? Why is he friendly to them?
 
5. What does Tomimura want to say when Sato said, “Okinawans are fine because you won’t be killed by the Americans”? Why does he keep silent?
 
6. Why does Nakada suspect that Satō is a spy? Do you think his suspicions are correct? Why or why not?
 
7. Why was the Okinawa Defense Force created?
 
8. What could an Okinawan soldier suspected of spying do to prove his innocence? What options were open to him?
 
9. How do Kuba’s feelings change though the story? What are the causes of those changes?
 
10.What do you think will happen to Kuba after the story ends?
 
11. What does Ōshiro’s story teach us about the strained relationship between Okinawans and Japanese soldiers during the war? 
 
                  
                                                                                         
12. Works Cited
 
“Akutagawashō sakka no Ōshiro Tatsuhiro ga shikyo sengo Okinawa no bungaku kenbiki” [Akutagawa Prize-winning author Ōshiro Tatsuhiro Dies]. Okinawa Times, 2020
 
Fujii, Takashi. “The story if internal conflict over the Battle of Okinawa.” Rev. of Bōheitai” by Ōshiro, Tatsuhiro. Okinawa Cultural Institute 31 March 2017. 131-157. Print
 
Japan Democracy Literature Society. Minshū Bungaku [Democratic Literature]. Tokyo: Japan Democracy Literature Society, May 2012. 94-105. Print.  
 
Kuroko, Kazuo. Ōshiro Tatsuhiro Literature Album. Tokyo: Bensei Press, 2004.
 
Nakahodo, Masanori. Shōsetsu no naka no Okinawa [Okinawa through the Novel]. Okinawa: Okinawa Times Press, 2009. Print.
 
“Okinawasen gunshireibu shurijō no chikagō o 11 nenburi ni kōkai” [Okinawa Command Center under Shuri Castle made Public for the First Time in 11 Years]. Tokyo: Yomiuri Shinbun, 3 August 3 2020.
 
Ōshiro, Tatsuhiro. “Bōheitai” [The Stick Soldiers]. Kakuteru Pātī. Tokyo: Rironsha, 1990. 69-89. Print.
 
---. Dōka to ika no hazama de [Between Assimilation and Dissimilation]. Tokyo: Ushio Publishing Co., Ltd. 1972.
 
---. Futenma yo. Tokyo: Shinshio Press, 2011. Print.
 
---. “Kakuteru Pāti” [The Cocktail Party]. Kakuteru Pāti. Tokyo: Iwanami Gendai Bunko, 2011. Print.
 
---. “Kame kōbaka” [Turtleback Tombs]. Kakuteru pātī. Tokyo: Bungei Shunjū, 1967. Print. 5-66.
 
---. “Rēru no mukō” [Beyond the Rail]. Rēru no mukō. Tokyo: Shinshio Press, 2015. Print. 5-36.

Wikipedia Contributors. “Okinawasen.” Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2 Jun. 2020. Web.
 
Yanai,Takashi. “Ōshiro Tatsuhiro no bungaku keisei to Ryūdai bungaku no sayou: 1950 nendaino Okinawa bungakuwo megutte” [Ōshiro Tatsuhiro’s literary formation and the action of Ryūdai literature: About Okinawa literature in the 1950s]. Okinawa bunka kenkyū 46. Hōsei University Okinawa Cultural Research Institute. Mar 2019. 243.
 
 
Original report by Shiori Nakada. Revised and edited by Kasumi Sminkey.