「亀甲墓」
“Kamenokōbaka”
[Turtleback Tombs]
Japanese Text:
Ōshiro, Tatsuhiro. “Kamenokōbaka.” Kakuteru pātī. Tokyo: Rironsha, 1982. 7-66.
English Text:
Ōshiro, Tatsuhiro. “Turtleback Tombs.” Trans. Steve Rabson. Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa. Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii Press, 2000. 112-154.
1. Introduction
In 1959, Ōshiro wrote “Kamenokōbaka” and submitted it to a magazine company, but it was not accepted. Ōno Takayuki points out that one of the reasons for the rejection was the historical background of the late 1960s. It was a time when the return movement was active in Okinawa, and the Okinawa problem was only talked about politically. “Kamenokōbaka” [Turtleback Tombs] was first published in 1966 in Shin Okinawa bungaku. In 1982, the story reappeared in Kakuteru Pātī (1982), along with “Bōhētai,” “Nisē,” “Gyakō no nakade,” “Kakuteru Pātī,” and “Shōrī no dashutsu.” The title refers to the fact that Okinawan tombs are often shaped like a turtle’s back or a woman on her back with her legs spread. In Okinawa, people believe that one goes back to one’s origins when one dies. According to Yukawa Yutaka, “Kamenokōbaka” is one of Ōshiro’s best stories. The story was translated into English by Steve Rabson and appears in Southern Exposure, which was published in 2002.
2. Character List
Ushi ウシ
Ushi is Zentoku’s sixty-year-old wife, who married Zentoku when she was past fifty, so they do not have a child. When she was about forty, her first husband turned her out of the house not only because their only child died, but also because he had another woman. Ushi returned to her parent’s house and lived there for about ten years. After turning fifty, she began to think about where she would be buried when she died, so she decided to marry into Zentoku’s house as his second wife. She performs the family rites and preserves the household for Zentoku and his grandchildren.
Zentoku 善徳
About seventy years old, Zentoku lives with Ushi and his grandchildren, Fumiko and Zenshun. He also has three children by his previous wife: an elder daughter, who moved to the Philippines; Také, a younger daughter; and a son, who went to the war after leaving his two children with his former wife. After Zentoku separated from his wife, he took Ushi as a second wife to take care of the ancestral rites for the household. He is stubborn, so he often quarrels with his family.
Eitarō 栄太郎
Eitarō is Také’s boyfriend and a former Japanese soldier. He lost one arm in fighting during the Japan-China War. Now he lives with Také and her daughter, Tamiko. After moving into the tomb with Zentoku’s family, he behaves like a member of the family, but Zentoku does not accept him.
Také タケ
Zentoku’s second daughter, Také has an only daughter, Tamiko. Her former husband was killed in the war, so she lives with another man, Eitarō, who Zentoku does not accept. She is kind to Ushi in spite of having no blood relations.
Fumiko and Zenshun 文子と善春
Fumiko is a sixth-grader, and Zenshun is a fourth-grader. They are Zentoku’s grandchildren and live with him. When war approaches, their father, Zentoku’s son, sent them to live with Zentoku’s family.
Mr. Zenga 善賀先生
Mr. Zenga is Zentoku’s second cousin. He was the principal of the local elementary school twenty years ago. Zentoku respects him for being knowledge and a moral example for the community.
Tamiko 民子
Také’s only daughter, Fumiko, is a five-year-old girl. She is not related to Eitarō by blood.
3. Plot Summary
Section 1 (7-21)
The battle of Okinawa has just begun. Ushi and Zentoku are at their house when suddenly they are shocked by a sound that seems to shatter the air. A man carrying a straw basket filled with grass appears outside and yells, “Gunboats are firing. It’s the war!” Zentoku tells Ushi, and she worries about the food for their pigs. Ushi asks Zentoku to bring Eitarō to let him help pack for evacuation. But Zentoku does not agree and feels embarrassed to ask for help because he hates Eitarō, who has only one arm. While Ushi and Zentoku get ready to evacuate, Fumiko and Zenshun come running back from the school. Just then, Také comes running while screaming for help with Tamiko, and Eitarō comes with some bags. They collect many things to evacuate, but they can hardly believe the war has started. They finally feel the war has begun as they leave the town. Ushi knows their life will begin to change. On the way to the family grave, they meet Mr. Zenga and his family. While they are talking, Zentoku feels embarrassed that Mr. Zenga is looking at Eitarō.
Section 2 (21-26)
They arrive at the family grave, which Zentoku is proud of. The grave is called a kamekō-baka (turtleback tomb), and the narrator explains the role of the grave and what it means in Okinawan culture. Zentoku is impressed when he opens his kamekō-baka, which he rebuilt at twenty years old. Zentoku and Ushi always strictly follow the ceremonies for opening the tomb doors.
Section 3 (26-34)
Zentoku’s family begins their life with their ancestors. In this situation, Ushi realizes that Zentoku feels Eitarō is a nuisance, but she thinks that if Zentoku accepts Eitarō as a member of the family, their lives will be better. Unlike the adult members, the children are scared of living with their dead ancestors and cannot get used to the place. To help them adjust, Zentoku lies down with his pillow to show the children that the ancestors are not scary. That night, Ushi wakes up suddenly and peeks outside the tomb door. Také and Eitarō get up automatically and follow her. After the three look at the stars for a while, Ushi begins to talk to Eitarō and Takè about the tomb and says that maybe Zentoku will not put their remains in this tomb. The two listen to Ushi’s words while staring out to sea. Ushi is thinking she might die here, but she prefers to die here than somewhere else. This is because she is Zentoku’s second wife.
Next, the section provides information about Ushi’s past, and about how she married into this house as Zentoku’s second wife. Ushi thinks about Také and Eitarō. While she feels that Také is not being a filial daughter, she understands Také’s feelings that a woman left behind by a husband is pathetic.
Section 4 (32-52)
On the morning of the third day, there is a loud explosion. They all agree when Zentoku says no one should go outside just to urinate, but someone points out that this will be a problem. Eitarō whispers to Také that the bottom of the mortuary urn cover is hollow and can be emptied outside at night after use. Just then, the same suggestion comes from Zenshun. On the other hand, Ushi and Také worry about the lack of food and the children’s condition. After five days, they notice that the US naval guns stop for half an hour each morning, and evening. Later, they learn that it is mealtime. The next morning Také and Eitarō go to pick potatoes. Tamiko follows them, but Také shouts, “Go back to grandma!” She grabs Tamiko’s hand and starts running toward the tomb. As they pass through the gate of the grave, a dead Japanese soldier falls down and hits Tamiko. She and Také do not move at all.
Everyone is afraid of the Japanese soldier falling from the tomb roof. Tamiko soon revives but cries for a long time afterward. Zentoku yells, “Her spirit’s gone! It must be brought back!” (43) and Ushi looks like she already knew this without his having to say so. After Ushi finishes the rite, Zentoku and Eitarō decide to bury the Japanese soldier. Také also helps them to carry the Japanese soldier’s body. After that, Zenshun asks Eitarō, “Will Japan just run away?” (51) At a loss for words, Eitarō can imagine the Japanese army in retreat, but he adds, “Japan might retreat for now but will surely win in the end.” (52) Although Ushi mutters, “I still want to stay here” (52) in a thin voice, no one notices.
Section 5 (52-62)
That night it rains. Zentoku asks Eitarō to dig for potatoes, and Eitarō agrees because Zentoku’s feelings toward him have softened. When Zentoku says to bring potatoes from his own field, Eitarō thinks Zentoku is a little strange under the circumstances, but he decides to do what Zentoku asks of him. While they are digging, Zentoku finds Mr. Zenga digging on his land, and he is shocked because he sees Mr. Zenga as a man of learning who always acts in a respectful manner. Mr. Zenga finally notices them and runs away with some potatoes. When Zentoku chases after him, Eitarō hears a shell explode. Zentoku dies, and Eitarō brings him back to their kamekōbaka. Ushi and Také push him aside and weep over poor Zentoku. While Eitarō wants to cry, he thinks he is the only man who can lead the family. After crying, Ushi says, “Let’s bury him.” She also tells Eitarō to notify their relatives.
Section 6 (63-66)
A short time later, Ushi tells Eitarō and Také that they have to bury Zentoku with the relatives present. Také clings to Zentoku’s body and weeps uncontrollably. Eitarō and Také decide to go around to their relatives, and Eitarō goes to the more distant Mr. Zenga, which puts him in danger of being exposed. On the way, he sees that the bridge has fallen into the river. Eitarō remembers that this is the only bridge, so he climbs down the embankment. Just then, a big explosion sounds behind him. Pushing through the mud, he finally climbs to the top of the embankment. The firing line approaches the kamekōbaka where Ushi is waiting for the relatives.
US Marines clearing a traditional burial tomb during the Battle of Okinawa, May 1945.
4. Setting
Although not clearly stated, there are many hints that the story takes place in Nakagusuku Village, located in the middle part of Okinawa. For example, when Zentoku and his family are heading to their tomb in the first section, the narrator says that many people are going to the northern part or the southern part of Okinawa. So, they live in the middle part. According to Ōno Takayuki, the story probably takes place in Nakagusuku Village, which was Ōshiro’s hometown. Ōno points out that many villagers were sacrificed during the attack of the US military heading to Shuri, the main location of the Japan military. Nakagusuku was heavily attacked by gunfire from the Chatan shore where the US military landed on Okinawa.
As for the date, the story starts with the naval bombardment of Okinawa, and then has many scenes of civilians caught in the attack, so the story clearly takes place just after the US military began its naval bombardment of Okinawa, from the end of March to the beginning of April in 1945.
5. Writing Style
According to Matsushita Yūichi, Ōshiro created an original language to experimentally express the regional language used in Okinawa. Compared to “Kamenokōbaka,” published in Kakuteru Pātī in 1967, the 1982 version of the story has approximately 100 changes to the endings of words. Ōshiro mainly expresses Okinawan language by adding endings, such as “tewa” or “teka,” to various words. He defined such expressions as being an experimental dialect. Okamoto Keitoku mentions that Ōshiro tries to make the Okinawa dialect accessible to mainland Japanese while still using the tone and rhythm of Okinawan dialect. Ōshiro also explains that it is difficult to use dialect to write about the local customs, and that mainland Japanese might not understand because Okinawan dialect is too different from standard Japanese. But Ōshiro solved the problem by creating this experimental dialect. This experimental use of Okinawan dialect is used in his other short stories, too. For example, “Panari nu suma gensō” [Isolated Island Fantasy] (1966), “Nirai kanai no machi” [The Town of Niraikanai] (1969).
Higashi Mineo’s Okinawa no shōnen [Child of Okinawa] (1971) won the Akutagawa Prize after Ōshiro’s “Kamenokōbaka.” Higashi also tried to use Okinawan dialect in his writing by mixing the Okinawan and Japanese languages. Nakahodo Masanori mentions that Higashi’s mixing of languages is clever. He was able to use Okinawan dialect in Japanese text by devising expressions that shocked other Okinawan writers. On the other hand, Ōshiro’s “Kamenokōbaka” has not always been considered a success. According to Ōno, Okinawa no shonen has a higher reproducibility of Okinawan dialect than “Kamenokōbaka,”which uses unnatural Okinawan dialect. Ōno, then, views Ōshiro’s experimental dialect as a failure.
6. Point of View
Although the narration is omniscient, the point of view is mainly that of Zentoku and Ushi, who are the protagonists of the story. In other words, we know what Zentoku and Ushi are thinking but not the thoughts of other characters. However, as the story progresses, the point of view changes to Eitarō. After Zentoku dies, the point of view clearly switches to Eitarō. In other words, the change in point of view parallels the switch in power from Zentoku to Eitarō.
The story includes descriptions of Okinawan culture, such as kamekōbaka, mabuigumi, and ancestor worship. So, telling the story in third person, Okinawan culture is explained clearly for readers and plays a role in helping mainland Japanese to understand Okinawan dialect, culture, and history.
7. Symbolism and Imagery
Kamekōbaka (Turtleback Tombs) 亀甲墓
“Kamenokōbaka” is the title and a complex symbol in the story. During the period of the Ryūkyū Dynasty, only members of the warrior class could build a kamekōbaka, but after the feudal domain system was abolished and the prefectural system was introduced in 1879, ordinary people were permitted to build them, too. As a result, many graves were built at that time. In the story, the kamekōbaka seems to represent life, death, and culture. During the Battle of Okinawa, many Okinawan people, especially elderly people, hid in the graves to survive, partly because they thought their ancestors would protect them. In the story, Zentoku’s family is not scared to be with their ancestors. Therefore, kamekōbaka is a place where life coexisted with death.
In Steve Rabson’s English translation, kamekōbaka is described as follows: “This family’s tomb, resembling a woman’s supine body, her legs spread open, now looked out on an ocean where enemy warships floated in the distance” (123). The description of a woman with legs spread towards the enemy clearly suggests rape. In other words, the US invasion of Okinawa is like a rape.
The kamekōbaka also seems to represent the difficulty of protecting Okinawan tradition during the war. Okinawan people offer their prayers and show respect to the ancestors. In the story, Ushi is particular about protecting the rites of the grave. However, there are many scenes in which the rites are not performed properly because of the war. This shows the collapse of tradition. Finally, the story ends with a scene that suggests the kamekōbaka might be destroyed. During the war, not only were many Okinawan people sacrificed, but also Okinawan tradition and culture were destroyed.
8. Historical Background
Yuta
Yuta are Okinawan women who have a special power, and who pray for individuals in their villages. For example, they tell the fortunes of houses and families, or remove evil for villagers. Okinawan people, especially Okinawan villagers, often go to yuta when their mind and body are sick. Yuta are also called tsukasa and sasu in the Miyako and the Yaeyama regions. Similarly, Okinawan women called noro are priestesses who play a religious role in villages. They mainly pray for the entire community, unlike yuta, who usually pray for individuals.
Ōshiro has written many works about yuta since the 1980s, such as “Mumei no matsuri” [Festival of darkness] (1981), “Zushigame” [The Mortuary Urn] (1986), and “Meiro” [The Maze] (1991). Miyakawa Kōjo points out that yuta are the base of Okinawan local cultures (322). In a talk about yuta with the folklorist Tanikawa Kenichi, Ōshiro mentions that yuta culture is the only culture that remains unchanged from the past. In “Kamenokōbaka,” Ushi is a strong Okinawan woman with a strong faith.
9. Themes
Preservation of Traditional Okinawan Culture
“Kamenokōbaka” raises questions about the preservation of traditional Okinawan culture. There are many scenes in which Ushi and Zentoku carry out the rites for their ancestors during the war. Ushi plays an especially important role in preserving the traditional Okinawan rites. In fact, one of the reasons she married Zentoku is to take care of his ancestral rites. On the other hand, Také and Eitarō, who represent the younger generation, do not worry about tradition as much, and their children, Fumiko and Zenshun, are scared of living with their ancestors. Although the younger characters sometimes think that the strong beliefs of Zentoku and Ushi are strange, they always end up following them. In other words, the traditional Okinawan culture that Zentoku and Ushi honor are passed down to the next generation. In this way, Ōshiro shows us how Okinawan people faithfully preserved the traditional Okinawan culture during the war.
To begin with, Ōshiro’s story shows that Okinawan people respected their ancestors during the war. For example, they decided to hide themselves and live with their ancestors in the kamekōbaka. Ushi tells the children that their ancestors are not scary and that they protect them from the enemy. And when Zentoku dies, Ushi says that the ancestors would not condemn her if she did not give him a proper burial. In other words, she worries about the ancestors in spite of Zentoku’s death. This shows how much Okinawans respect their ancestors.
Second, Ōshiro’s story shows that Okinawan people preserved the views of life and death during the war. For example, in Steve Rabson’s English translation, kamekōbaka is described in this way: “People familiar with these tombs compare them to a woman’s body, shaped exactly as if she were lying on her back with legs spread. They say that the ‘tomb doorway’ centered at the bottom of the front wall-large enough for one adult to enter, crouched down is designed like a vagina, representing the source of life to which a person is said to return after death” (123). Many Okinawan people chose their tombs for evacuation during the war based on the idea that people come back to the origin where people die. This shows that Okinawan people preserved the views of life and death during the war.
Third, Ōshiro’s story describes the power relationships within Okinawan families. For example, Zentoku and Ushi have the power in their family at first, so the point of view is mainly theirs. Zentoku, who owns the kamekōbaka, is the master of the family. Ushi tells Eitarō and Také that this tomb is Zentoku’s and that they should do as he says. Having one’s own tomb means one has the power in the family. Ushi plays a role in preserving the rites, so she also has power in their family. Eitarō and Také follow her instructions in many scenes. However, at the end of the story, when Zentoku dies, the power relationship changes from Zentoku and Ushi to Eitarō. Eitarō is the only man who can lead their family now. As if to make this clear, Ōshiro has the point of view change to him.
In conclusion, Ōshiro’s story shows traditional Okinawan culture and considers the problem of whether that culture will be passed down to the next generation. He shows that Okinawan people preserved their beliefs in their ancestors, the views of life and death, and the power relationships in their families.
Disruption of Okinawan Culture and Belief
The Battle of Okinawa was fought from March 26 to June 23 in 1945. The US military attacked not only by air strikes and naval gunfire, but also they landed on the mainland and attacked with other armaments. The constant naval attack was like a heavy storm and has been called tetsu no bōfū (or “typhoon of steel”). During the attack, 122,000 Okinawan people died, and of those 94,000 were civilians. However, the fight not only killed many people but also destroyed much of the Okinawan culture that Okinawan people kept for a long time. Ōshiro describes the destruction of Okinawan culture at the end of the story in the scene in which a fireball approaches the kamenokōbaka, a symbol of the Okinawan people. Ōshiro’s story shows that various things were disrupted by the Battle of Okinawa.
To begin with, Ōshiro’s story shows that Okinawan culture and beliefs were destroyed by the Battle of Okinawa. For example, early in the story, when Zentoku’s family opens the gate of their tomb, they do not follow the proper rites for opening the tomb doors. In the story, the narration explains: “Ordinarily, Zentoku and Ushi followed these strictly, but neither even mentioned them today since there was, of course, a war on” (23). This shows that the war disturbed their ordinary rules and disrupted the rituals. In the middle of the story, Ushi does mabuigumi, the rites that elderly women perform to call back a spirit when somebody falls down or is in an accident. Normally, the rite is performed at the place where the accident happened using rice. However, they do not have rice and cannot go outside, so Zentoku yells to Ushi: “You can use miso or potatoes. And today we will just have to send our prayers from here” (43). This shows that Okinawan rituals were disrupted by the Battle of Okinawa.
Second, Ōshiro’s story shows how ordinary lives were disrupted. For example, early in the story, Ushi and Zentoku tend their land as usual: “On most days, all grandma Ushi and grandpa Zentoku thought about was what went on inside the ninety square feet of their thatched-roof house on its quarter acre of land” (7). However, they are forced to decide to live with their ancestors in the kamenokōbaka. In the middle of the story, they discuss where to defecate and decide to use the mortuary urn covers. Although they respect their ancestors, they are ever forced to act in this disrespectful way.
Third, Ōshiro’s story shows that the morals of people were distorted by the Battle of Okinawa. For example, in the middle of the story, Eitarō and Take start to have sex in front of the children. Such behavior is clearly inappropriate, but the war situation leaves them little choice. Toward the end of the story, when Zentoku and Eitarō go to dig for potatoes, they find Mr. Zenga stealing the potatoes from Zentoku’s field. Zentoku respects him and thinks he is a man of learning; however, Mr. Zenga is hungry and must steal to survive. These examples show that the morals of people were distorted by the Battle of Okinawa.
10. Criticism
Ōno, Takayuki. “Okinawa bungakuron―Ōshiro Tatsuhiro o yominaosu” [Theory of Okinawan Literature: Re-reading Ōshiro Tatsuhiro]. Okinawa: Tōyōkikaku, 2016.
In this paper, Takayuki Ōno discusses how Ōshiro’s story describes how Okinawan identity and culture uses the notion of god to support life under extreme situations. He regards the Battle of Okinawa as a fight involving three cultures: America, Yamato (mainland Japan), and Okinawa. Ōno provides helpful information about the role of the main characters. He views Ushi as the main character, who represents traditional values. Zentoku represents the values of Okinawan people after the Ryukyu annexation (when the Ryukyu Kingdom was abolished and Okinawa prefecture was established). Mr. Zenga represents a responsible educator who has assimilated to mainland Japan. As an educator, he is partly responsible for the destruction of Okinawan dialect (Ōno 1-5).
In the second section, Ōno discusses Ōshiro’s motivations for writing. In interviews, Ōshiro has said that when he came back to Okinawa after the war, he did not know what to live for. After that, he focused on Okinawa’s values and wrote a story that focused on the Battle of Okinawa from the perspective of culture. Through the ending, Ōshiro expresses his fear that Okinawan culture may have been destroyed by the war (Ōno 5-9) .
In the last section of his paper, Ōno discusses theme, writing style, and Ōshiro’s influence on current literature. According to Ōno, the story is based on Ōshiro’s ideas and feelings about his hometown. In other words, Ōshiro tries to discover how to pass down traditional culture and preserve Okinawan identity through the local dialect. Ōshiro uses dialect to describe the local life of Zentoku’s family. Ōno points out that Ōshiro shows that Okinawan culture is different from mainland Japanese culture (Ōno 10-2).
11. Discussion Questions
1. Why did the family hide in the family tomb?
2. Why did Ushi marry Zentoku?
3. What is the significance of Eitarō having only one arm?
4. Discuss the symbolic meaning of the kamekōbaka.
5. What role do Ushi, Zentoku, and Zenga play in the story?
6. Did Ushi manage to pass the traditional culture to the next generation? Give evidence to support your answer.
7. How did Zentoku and his family view the war?
8. How did Eitarō feel upon Zentoku’s death?
9. How do the power relations of the family change during the story?
10. What will happen to the family after the story ends?
12. Works Cited
Goya, Minako. “Ōshiro Tatsuhiro no mihappyōsakuhinnituite－Okinawa to hondo no kankakutekisōi ni thyakumokusite－” [Ōshiro Tatsuhiro unpublished works－To pay attention to a sensuous difference between Okinawa and mainland, Japan－]. Doctor Program, Graduate School of Library Information and Media Studies, University of Tsukuba. 2005. PDF files.
Miyakawa, Kōji. “Ōshiro Tatsuhiro to Okinawa no yuta bungaku” [Ōshiro Tatsuhiro and the Yuta Literature of Okinawa]. Nihon University, Graduate School of Social and Cultural Studies. 2009. PDF files.
Okinawa Literary Forum Executive Committee. “Okinawa bungaku fōramu no hōkokusho－Okinawa, dochyaku kara fuhen－Tabunkashugi jidai no hyōgen no kanōsei” [Proceedings of the Okinawa literary forum－From the local to the global: Okinawa literature in the age of multiculturalism]. Okinawa: Bunshin Press, 1997.
Ōno, Takayuki. “Okinawa bungakuron－Ōshiro Tatsuhiro wo yominaosu” [Theory of Okinawan Literature: Reading Ōshiro Tatsuhiro]. Okinawa: Tōyōkikaku, 2016. 33-41.
Ōshiro, Tatsuhiro. “Kamekōbaka.” Kakuteru pātī. Tokyo: Rironsha, 1982. 7-66.
---. “Turtleback Tombs.” Trans. Steve Rabson. Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa. Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii Press, 2000. 112-154.
Satohara, Akira. “Ryūkyūko no bungaku－Ōshiro Tatsuhiro no sekai” [Literature of the Ryūkyū Arc: the World of Ōshiro Tatsuhiro]. Tokyo: Univ. of Hōsei Press, 1991. 1-12.
Wikipedia contributors. “Kamekōbaka.” Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 10 Nov. 2017. Web. 10 Nov. 2017.
Wikipedia contributors. “Okinawa no shōnen” (movie)." Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 12 Mar. 2017. Web. 12 Mar. 2017.
Wikipedia contributors. “Okinawasen.” Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 23 Jul. 2018. Web. 23 Jul. 2018.
Wikipedia contributors. “Yuta.” Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 19 May. 2018. Web. 19 May. 2018.
Yuichi, Matsushita. “‘Jikkenhōgen’ saikō－Ōshiro Tatsuhiro no shōsetsu ‘Kamenokōbaka’ no tekusuto kaihen wo megutte－” [Reconsidering “jikkenhougen”－Focused on the text revision of Ōshiro Tatsuhiro’s Turtleback Tombs－]. Studies in sociology, psychology and education: inquiries into humans and societies. 2010. PDF file.
Original Report by Marina Miyagi. Edited and revised by Kasumi Sminkey.