Reading Okinawa

Japanese Text:

Matayoshi, Eiki. “Buta no mukui.” Buta no mukui. Tokyo: Bungeishunshū, 1996. 7-120.


1. Introduction

Matayoshi Eiki is a contemporary Okinawan writer who received the Akutagawa Prize in 1996. He graduated from the University of the Ryukyus and majored in history. After graduating, he worked at a city library in Urasoe city, while working on his writing. His stories consider Okinawan religion, culture, and the history of Okinawa after the war. His works have been translated into English, French, and Italian.

His first work, “Kānibaru tōgyūtakai [The Carnival Bullfight]” (1976) received the Ryūkyū Shimpō Short Story Prize. The story tells about a bullfight and shows what Okinawan people think about American soldiers.

In the later 1970s and 1980s, Matayoshi’s stories examined American soldiers’ lives and thinking, most notably in “Jōji ga shasatu shita inoshishi [The Wild Boar that George Shot]” (1978), a story about an American soldier who shoots an Okinawan. The story received the Kyushu Arts Festival Literature Prize.

In the 1990s, Matayoshi’s stories focused on Okinawan peoples’ everyday lives. Kinobori buta [Tree-Climbing Pigs] (1996) and “Buta no mukui” [The Pig’s Retribution] (1996) both discuss Okinawan religion and culture, especially in relation to pigs and utaki.

In the 2000s, Matayoshi’s works focused on Okinawan people and their culture. For example, Ryōshi to utahime (2009) is a story about peoples’ lives in a small fishing village, and describes how the youth preserve their traditional regional culture.

“Buta no mukui” [The Pig’s Retribution] was made into a movie in 1999. The movie was directed by the well known Sai Yōichi. Many of the actors are also famous: Ozawa Yukiyoshi played Shōkichi; Ameku Michiko played Miyo; Ueda Mayumi played Yōko; and Sōsaka Yoshie played Wakako. Okinawan actors played some characters; for example, Yoshida Taeko, a popular Okinawan actor, played Kame. Moreover, Kishibe Ittoku, one of the most popular actors in Japan, played the doctor. The film was won the Don Quixote Prize at the Locarno International Film Festival in 1999.

“Buta no mukui [The Pig’s Retribution]” was written in 1995 and first appeared in Bungakukai. In 1996, the story won the Akutagawa Prize. The story’s defining feature is that Okinawan people’s lives are described with a unique kind of humor. In the story, a young man named Shōkichi goes to Maja Island with three hostesses on a pilgrimage. Maja Island is a fictional island modeled on Kudaka Island, a spiritual place where many people go to feel spiritual power. However, Kudaka Island does not face the Katsuren fishing port, which is described in the story.

The pig, which is the main symbol of the story, leads the four main characters to the island, but the pig (and pork) also causes them to lose spirit and to get food poisoning. The three women have dark pasts, but they hope to cast their pasts aside, and move forward with passion and determination. Through this story, Matayoshi wants to show how strongly and passionately Okinawan people live and how traditional Okinawan culture helps them to do that.


2. Character List

Shōkichi 正吉

Shōkichi is the protagonist of the story. He was born on Maja Island, but he moved to Yonashiro village when he was a child. He frequents the bar where the three women work. He is interested in Okinawan religious culture, for example, yuta, utaki, and ugan. He is very kind, and always listens to people’s stories. In the story, he leads the women on their trip to Maja Island.

Miyo ミヨ

Miyo owns the bar that Shōkichi frequents. She usually does not speak about the past. She got divorced because she could not have a baby. She is always acting tough, but she wants to talk about her secret feelings.

Yōko 暢子

Yōko is a hostess at Miyo’s bar. She has a daughter from her late husband, who died from appendicitis. After that she remarried, and her daughter now has asthma. She is a little tough and domineering.

Wakako 和歌子

Wakako is a hostess at Miyo’s bar. She lost her family, lover, and baby. She has not had a lover for five years. She always depends on Shōkichi when something happens. She acts like a young girl, and her spiritual side is weaker than the others. When she gets food poisoning, she sees the ghosts of her family and others.

The guesthouse’s proprietress 民宿の女将

The married owner of the guesthouse, the proprietress is cheerful but meddlesome. She takes care of Shōkichi, Miyo, Yōko, and Wakako during their visit. She gives advice to visitors when they have some trouble.

The propretress’s husband 女将の旦那

He brings pork to the guests. In the middle of the story, he tells Shōkichi about fūsō, or open-air burial. At the hospital, he brings squid ink soup for everyone, which leads Shōkichi to change his mind about the utaki.


3. Plot Summary

In the first section (7-13), Shōkichi, Miyo, Yōko, and Wakako wait for the ferry to go to Maja Island. Three days ago, a pig came into the bar and caused Wakako to lose her mabui, or soul. To help her recover, they decide to go to the island. Shōkichi regrets being with them because he wants to pick up his father’s bones. However, he feels obligated to help the women and to do an exorcism for them.

The second section (13-20) is a flashback to three days ago when they decided to go to Maja Island. The pig rushes into the bar and runs around. Wakako loses her mabui, or spirit, so Shōkichi is asked to put it back into her body. He is interested in yuta, the female Okinawan shaman who always help people when they are in trouble, so even though he isn’t a yuta, he agrees to perform a mabuigumi (a ceremony for putting the spirit back into a person) for Wakako. Shōkichi mentions the belief that pigs know who will die and suggests going to a utaki, or holy place, to pray to the gods at Maja Island. The women decide to go to Maja Island the very next weekend.

In the third section (20-5), Wakako invites Shōkichi to the bar to eat tofu champurū, fried vegetables with tofu, and the women start to talk about their pasts. First, Yōko talks about her family. She had a husband and a daughter; however, her husband died from appendicitis. She remarried her husband’s younger brother, and now her daughter has asthma. Next, Wakako talks about her family. Both of her parents, her older sister, and her baby have died. When she walks on the street, some people call her Yūko, which is her sister’s name. However, they do not look alike, so this scares her. Miyo, the mama-san of the bar, does not talk about her past.

The fourth section (25-31) tells about fūsō (outdoor burial, which used to be common in Okinawa), and then returns to the scene at the ferry when the group arrives at the island. Shōkichi’s father’s body has been on the cliff for twelve years because when people die a violent death, the family cannot put the body in the family grave. Shōkichi sometimes daydreams about such things because of his unhappy background. After the ferry arrives at Maja Island, the group walks to the guesthouse. When they arrive, they talk with the owner about the gods, food, and funerals.

In the fifth section (31-5), they start to eat dinner with the proprietress. Before eating, Shōkichi tells the women not to mention the utaki because people living on the island will be angry. While they are eating, the proprietress talks about Shōkichi’s past.

In the sixth section (35-46), they drink awamori and tell stories. First, Yōko talks about her family and her husband, who cheated with a young woman at her house. When Yōko caught them in the act, she hit the woman, and later moved to Urasoe from Naha. Next, Wakako talks about her love story. She had a boyfriend; however, she does not have one now. After that, Shōkichi tells the schedule for going to the utaki. However, the women drink a lot, so Shōkichi drinks with them again. The proprietress falls out of the second floor window when she is looking out at the moon. Miyo asks Shōkichi to bring her to the hospital.

In the seventh section (46-54), while Shōkichi and Miyo are bringing the proprietress to the hospital, Miyo talks about her past. She had an abortion because her baby was not her husband’s. When she goes to Manza beach, she can hear the voice of a man and child, so she always wants to confess her sin to someone. After Shōkichi and Miyo come back to the guest house, Yōko visits Shōkichi’s room and chats with him. However, Miyo takes her to their room.

In the eighth section (54-70), Shōkichi decides to put off going to the utaki. At the same time, the owner’s husband brings pork and liver. The women cook a lot of the pork and eat a lot. However, they get food poisoning, especially Miyo. Shōkichi goes to the hospital to get medicine for them.

In the ninth section (70-9), Wakako and Yōko feel better than yesterday. However, Miyo is not good, so they decide to bring her to the hospital. At the hospital, the proprietress suggests that Shōkichi take care of them. At first, Miyo is embarrassed and says no, but eventually she agrees.

In the tenth section (79-93), Shōkichi tells Yōko and Wakako to stay at the hospital to take care of Miyo. At eleven o’clock, Miyo wets her pants, and Shōkichi helps her to clean up after the proprietress tells him to. However, Miyo gets angry and tells him to go back to the guesthouse. When he returns from the hospital, Wakako comes into his room. She says that she saw the ghosts of her family and other people. Shōkichi says that they are just glad to see that the gods are with her. Before Wakako started working at the bar, she had tried to commit suicide.

In the eleventh section (93-103), Shōkichi, Yōko and Wakako decide to go to the hospital to see Miyo. At the hospital, Miyo and the others eat squid ink soup. While eating the soup, Shōkichi talks about fūsō with the proprietress’s husband and the doctor. They explain that Shōkichi’s father’s bones are still at the fūsōba, facing the ocean. After he hears this, Shōkichi tells the women that they will go to the utaki, but he thinks that he will pick up his father’s bones secretly.

In the twelfth section (103-10), Shōkichi visits the fūsōba. His father’s bones are there, where they have been facing the ocean for twelve years. When Shōkichi sees his father’s skull, he feels that his father is smiling him. He changes his plans and decides to make a new utaki for his father’s remains. He thinks that since his father has seen much of the world, he may have become a god. He also decides to take the women here because this new god, his father, will help them.

Ishiki Beach on Kudaka Island

In the final section (110-20), Shōkichi tells the women that they will go to the utaki. The women promise not to lie to the god. After Shōkichi tells them about his utaki, they start walking there. Shōkichi thinks the women do not mind which utaki they go to because of the food poisoning. While walking, Yōko cries and talks about her second child, who died when he was six years old. Miyo shows her scar, from when she had an abortion. Together with the proprietress, the group starts walking to the utaki again.

A road on Kudaka

4. Point of View

The story is narrated in third person from Shōkichi’s point of view. In the story, the narrator often describes what Shōkichi is thinking and experiencing, and sometimes describes the women’s behavior. When the story changes to a flashback about his family, the narration focuses on Shōkichi’s thoughts more than in other sections. If the point of view were focused more on the women, the story would be quite different. The women are not interested in Okinawan religious culture like Shōkichi, nor are they reflective and philosophical.

On the other hand, the third person narration helps readers to view Shōkichi and his interest in traditional culture more objectively. Since the narration does not directly argue for traditional culture, readers can make up their own minds. If the story were narrated in first person, it would read like Shōkichi’s life story—and be less challenging for readers.


5. Symbolism and Imagery

The pig

At the beginning of “Buta no mukui,” a pig rushes into the bar and upsets the woman working there. Terrified, Wakako, one of the hostesses at the bar, loses her mabui (which means “soul” in Okinawan language). The women decide to go to Maja Island to pray to the gods. The women had many bad memories, so the pig gives them the opportunity to put those experiences behind them. In the middle of the story, the pig (in the form of pork) gives them another opportunity: their food poisoning represents their mental pain, so overcoming that pain makes them feel and look better. They even say, “It was really good that the pig came into the bar” (118).

As one can see from the title, the pig plays an important role in Matayoshi’s story. Pigs are popular in Okinawa because they are deeply connected to daily life. In Okinawa toire yogawari, Munetaka Hirakawa discussed the history of pigs in Okinawa. According to Hirakawa, some Chinese first brought pigs to Okinawa in 1392. Before this, Okinawan people did not eat pork. However, Chinese eat pigs every day, so the government had to grow pigs.

In the seventeenth century, Okinawans found a new way to raise pigs: they used their inedible sweet potatoes as feed. Pork is a valuable source of protein food, so individual Okinawans started raising pigs, too. This was also the start of Okinawan fūru culture, which refers to raising pigs at outdoor latrines and using human excrement as feed. For sanitary reasons, this system has long since been abandoned, but most Okinawans know this history and view pigs as being connected to defecation.

In Matayoshi’s story, the connections between pigs, health, and defecation—which are a part of Okinawan history—are made clear. For example, in the middle of the story, the women get food poisoning after eating pork, and this causes them to have diarrhea. Considering the history of pigs in Okinawa, this can be seen as the pig’s perverse revenge against the women. Pigs had been fed human excrement, and now the women eat unhealthy pork and get diarrhea. On the other hand, when the women overcome their food poisoning, they become more honest and healthy—just like pigs in Okinawa that have been given healthier feed. Thus, the women and the pigs go through a similar process.

By the end of the story, the women appreciate how the pig has changed their lives. This shows how Okinawans are thankful for their food culture. Even today, Okinawans eat all parts of the pig, out of desire to avoid waste and out of appreciation towards the pigs. With humor, Matayoshi shows that the pig is an important part of Okinawan culture.

The meaning of the names

As in most fiction, the names of characters and locations in “Buta no mukui” have meaning. First, Shōkichi’s name, which is written 正吉 in Japanese kanji, has the meaning of “leading people to be honest.” At the beginning of the story, the women do not talk about their feelings. However, when they decide to go to the island, they begin talking about their pasts with Shōkichi. By the end of the story, the women resolve to be more honest in their lives.

Second, Maja island’s name is written 真謝島 in Japanese, using the kanji for “truth” and “apologize.” In the story, the women confess their sins, which is to say, they apologize and tell the truth about their pasts. In a sense, it is the island that leads them to be honest with themselves. The names of Shōkichi and Maja Island are both clues to the reader about these themes of honesty and apologizing.

Third, the name of Miyo’s bar is Tsuki no hama [Moon Beach] and is written 月の浜 in Japanese. The moon appears when Shōkichi, the women, and the proprietress are drinking. The proprietress falls out of the window when his pointing to the moon. The scene is similar to the scene at the bar when Wakako loses her spirit. It is as if the moon has a mysterious power that connects the women to one another.

On the other hand, the names of the women—Miyo, Yōko, and Wakako—are ordinary names in Japan, and their symbolic meanings are unclear.

The Seven Sacraments

According to Kasumi Sminkey, Matayoshi’s descriptions of ceremonies throughout “Buta no mukui,” seem to parody the Catholic Seven Sacraments. First, after Wakako loses her soul, Shōkichi splashes awamori on her forehead in a ritual that is similar to Baptism (17). Second, the women’s feast of pork is referred to as the “Last Supper” and seems similar to the Eucharist (58). Third, early in the evening, the women reconfirm their determination to be honest and make a toast, in a ceremony similar to Confirmation (36). Fourth, all of the women confess their sins to Shōkichi, which is similar to Confession, the sacrament in which believers confess their sins to a priest (22-5). Fifth, when Yōko gets food poisoning, she says that she is going to die, and then Shōkichi lays his hand on her head, a ceremony that suggests Last Rites, the sacrament carried out before a person dies. Sixth, when Shōkichi visits Miyo at the hospital, the doctor declares that they are now married, as if they have received the sacrament of Marriage (73-5). Finally, at the end of the story, one of the women declare that “Shōkichi is no longer ours; he belongs to God,” and then they follow him, as he leads them forward (120). This final scene, of course, suggests Ordination, the sacrament in which a man is made a priest.

The fact that these ceremonies are described in a way to suggest the Seven Sacraments suggests that Matayoshi believes ceremonies are important in helping people to change their lives. However, since the descriptions seem to be parodies of the Seven Sacraments, readers are left wondering whether those ceremonies were effective or not.


6. Setting

Matayoshi names his fictional island Maja Island. The location is similar to that of Tsuken Island, which faces Katsuren and Yonashiro, places Matayoshi mentions in the story. However, the island itself seems to be modeled not on Tsuken but on Kudaka Island. Kudaka Island does not face Katsuren and Yonashiro, but it is well known for being the island of the gods.

Ishiki Beach on Kudaka Island

Tsuken Island is also known for having gods living there. According to Maeda Isshū, Tsuken Village has various stories about who made their village. One of the stories is about people who moved to this island, and another story is about a god named Amamikiyo, who builds the village. The story is similar to stories about Kudaka Island. In conclusion, one can say that Matayoshi’s Maja Island is a composite description, based on Tsuken and Kudaka islands.

Kudaka Island

7. Cultural Background

Utaki

Utaki have played an important role in Okinawa’s religious culture for a long time. In popular culture, young people and travelers sometimes think of utaki as being power spots. However, they also have a religious significance. In “Utaki no bunka isan to shite no igi,” Yoshiharu Jinno explains that utaki are considered doors to the supernatural sphere (52). He points out that people believe that gods live at utaki and protect them. Some utaki, such as Kubō utaki on Kudaka Island, have rules that men cannot enter the center area. In “Okinawa no utaki no ichikōsatsu,” Gwendoline Van Der Vorst explains that during Ryūkyūan times, women priestesses called noro could enter to pray to the gods. Kudaka island is especially famous for its utaki. That is why even today Okinawan people call Kudaka “the island of the gods.”

Fubō Utaki, a well known utaki on Kudaka Island

In “Buta no mukui,” the utaki represents a place for people to decide to start a new life. In Okinawa, people believe that utaki are places to pray to the gods and reflect on one’s life. At the end of the story, Shōkichi makes a new utaki on the cliff in order to change his mind about his family. Usually, people do not make new utaki because they believe that the old ones have power. The final scene represents Shōkichi’s radical departure on a new life. Similarly, the women come to the island to pray to the gods; however, they end up getting food poisoning instead. Before that happens, they did not accept their pasts, but the food poisoning allows them to reflect and start new lives. The fact that Shōkichi is a man is also significant. Normally, men are not even allowed to enter an utaki, so Matayoshi’s description of a man creating a new utaki might be a proposal for a way to reinvigorate a fading Okinawan tradition.

Fūsō

The custom of fūsō (open-air burial) is mentioned several times in “Buta no mukui.” Shōkichi’s father died at sea when he was fishing, but his dead body was later discovered. On Maja Island, when someone dies from violence, the body is put on the cliff. Fūsō is a kind of burial in Okinawa, in which a body is put on a cliff or some other location where the flesh can decompose. Kudaka Island also used to follow this burial custom. Related to fūsō was a festival called Izaihō, a festival held every twelve years to pray to the god of children. Matayoshi’s story does not mention izaihō: however, fūsō was also held every twelve years.

On Kudaka, near where a fūsōba (outdoor burial site) used to be located

In “Yanagida kunio no bosei kenkyū,” Shigenori Iwata mentions that the festival included a ritual related to open-air burial: “Every twelve years, they would burn the survivors, wash the bones, and put them in a common rock grave” (160). Iwata also mentions that the first type of grave was to just put the dead body in a cave, which makes clear that fūsō was held in preparation for the festival. In “Buta no mukui,” Shōkichi decides to make an utaki so that he would have a place to put his father’s bones, which were on the cliff, so Matayoshi was probably aware of the izaihō ceremonies.


8. Criticism

Oitate, Masatsugu. “A Comparative Study of Local Symbols in Ralph Ellison’s “Flying Home” and Eiki Matayoshi’s ‘Buta no mukui’.” Okinawa International University Study of Foreign Languages. No. 6 (2003): 143-160.

In this paper, Oitate Masatsugu argues that the pig in “Buta no mukui” and the buzzard in “Flying Home” are both symbols of the local community (145). In the third section, Oitate discusses the function of the pig in “Buta no mukui.” First, Oitate quotes Matayoshi as saying that Okinawans have used pigs in exorcisms and to make predictions, that Okinawans love pork, that pork is necessary in traditional events and festivals, and that the pig has been a symbol of the Okinawan people and its gods for centuries (150). In the middle section, Oitate compares Shōkichi and Todd, the buzzard and the pig, the women and Todd, Shōkichi and Jefferson, and the proprietress and Jefferson. For example, he points out that Shōkichi and Todd are about the same age, and that the stories depict the main character’s transition from boyhood to manhood.

Second, Oitate mentions that while pork is the symbol of the local community, the liver is the symbol of the soul. He explains that the women’s troubles are connected to their stomachs (153). For example, the women have had trouble with pregnancies. Similarly, Shōkichi’s mother and grandmother also had troubled pregnancies, which shows that pregnancy is an important theme in the story.

Third, Oitate argues that the squid ink soup is extremely important for Shōkichi. In the story, when Shōkichi, Yōko, and Wakako visit Miyo at the hospital, the proprietress’s husband brings them some squid ink soup. When Shōkichi finishes eating the soup, Wakako tells him that his nose has turned black and that he looks like a pig. Oitate argues that this scene is an analogy showing how Shōkichi has gone through a rite of passage.

Fourth, Oitate discusses the role of the proprietress in the story. Although she does not seem to be an important character, the proprietress is present during many important scenes. For example, she is present when Miyo talks about her past, when the women get food poisoning, and in the final scene when the group heads off to the utaki. Shōkichi appreciates her taking care of them and for being present when the women talk about their pasts and various concerns. Oitate argues that the proprietress is pure and unobtrusive, like a goddess that looks over them.

Finally, Oitate mentions the similarities between the two stories. He points out that the buzzard and the pig are powerful local symbols. In “Buta no mukui,” the pig causes Wakako to lose her soul, causes the women to get food poisoning, and is finally appreciated by everyone (158). Oitate ends his essay by pointing out that people can learn from the wisdom of black Americans and of Okinawan culture by reading these stories.


9. Themes

Traditional Okinawan Culture for Youngsters

By offering Shōkichi as a model, Matayoshi’s story suggests that youth should be more actively involved in traditional Okinawan religion and culture. Shōkichi, a university student, enthusiastically studies about Okinawan spiritual culture; for example, he studied on his own about yuta (shaman), mabui (the soul), and utaki (holy spots in nature). What’s more, he tries to practice the religious skills he reads about. At the beginning of the story, Shōkichi tries to do a mabuigumi (soul- stuffing ritual) for Wakako—even though he has never done this before. Later in the story, he builds a new utaki for his father’s bones—even though people do not usually create their own utaki.

In other words, Shōkichi believes that he can and should be actively involved in spiritual activities. The women do not think about spiritual things all the time; however, when things go wrong, they become more interested. Most people in Okinawa have seen or participated in various ceremonies for the gods or ancestors. However, such ceremonies do not occur every day, so most young people do not see the connection to their lives. Shōkichi, though, is extremely conscious of spiritual things, and sees the connections. In addition, he attempts to change the traditions by making a new utaki. Few Okinawans would consider doing this, but Matayoshi’s story seems to encourage young people to take charge of their traditions and to feel free to make changes.

The Mental Strength of Okinawans

Matayoshi describes the lives of his characters in a humorous way, but he also tries to show their mental strength. For example, at the beginning of the story, after the pig rushes into the bar and Wakako loses her soul, the women immediately go back to work and greet their customers with smiles. Similarly, when the proprietress of the hotel falls out of the window and gets injured, she does not get terribly upset. Shōkichi and Miyo just bring her to the hospital, and they never mention the injury again. In the same way, the women have moved on after the tragedies in their lives and when they get food poisoning. Shōkichi shows his mental strength in dealing with his father’s remains.

In these ways, Matayoshi shows the mental strength of Okinawan people. Even in the face of adversity, Okinawans remain calm and unfazed. This attitude is highlighted by the popular Okinawan phrase “Nankurunaisa,” which means that something good will come of a problem. Matayoshi uses this phrase with humor to encourage readers to be strong in the face of adversity.

Eating

“Buta no mukui” has many vivid descriptions of eating, many of which show the connection to sexual appetite. The women and Shōkichi eat tōfu chanpurū, pork, fish soup, and squid soup. At the same time, the women want to have a relationship with Shōkichi. In other words, they want to devour both the food and Shōkichi. When they are drinking alcohol at the guesthouse, they visit Shōkichi’s room one after another. At their meal, they devour an unhealthy amount of pork. Shōkichi, on the other hand, does not eat so much. In addition, he repulses the women’s sexual advances. In terms of appetite, then, Shōkichi and the women are opposites. Readers can see that the women have a strong passion for life, even though their appetites sometimes seem excessive.

Pig head at the downtown market in Naha

10. Study Questions

1. How does the opening description in Buta no mukui establish the tone for the story?

2. Why does Shōkichi propose that the women go to Maja island?

3. Why do the women talk about their pasts to Shōkichi before going to the utaki?

4. How do the women view Shōkichi? How does their view of him change during the trip?

5. What is the significance of the pig and pork? What do they represent? To what does the “pig’s retribution” specifically refer?

6. What is Shōkichi’s motivation for making a new utaki?

7. What hints are in the story about the time and setting?

8. Why does Matayoshi create a fictional island instead of using an actual island?

9. Why does the proprietress appear in so many scenes? What is the significance of her presence?

10. Why are there so many vivid descriptions of eating throughout the story? How is eating related to sexual appetite?

11. What does the story teach us about how young Okinawan should view Okinawan traditional culture?


11. Works Cited

Buta no mukui. Dir. Sai Yōichi. Perf. Ozawa Yukiyoshi, Ameku Michiko, Ueda Yumiko, Sōsaka Yoshie, and Kishibe Ittoku. Sansentoshinemawa-kusu, 1999. Film.

“Buta no mukui, Locarno kokusai eigasai de jushō.” Ryūkyū Shimpō 17 August 1999. Web.

Hirakawa, Munetaka. “Fūru no rekishi.” Okinawa toire yogawari. Naha: Bōdaink, 2000. 39-41.

Iwata, Shigenori. “Yanagida Kunio no bosei kenkyū.” Tokyo Gakugei University Repository. 47 (1996): 157-165.

Jinno, Yoshiharu. “Utaki no bunkaisan to shite no igi.” Symposium of Utaki. 23 Mar. 2013. 48-54. Web. 25 Jun. 2014. <http://www.jpf.go.jp/j/culture/new/0412/img/pdf/report06.pdf>.

Maeda, Isshū. “Umi to nō ni ikiru Tsukenjima no hitobito.” Shimatathi. 38 (2006). 38-41.

Matayoshi, Eiki. “Buta no mukui” [The Pig’s Retribution]. Buta no mukui. Tokyo: Bungeishunshū, 1996. 7-120.

---. “Ginnemu yashiki.” Gunnemu yashiki. Tokyo: Shūeisha, 1981.

---. “Ka-nibaru tōgyūtaikai” [The carnival bullfight]. Okinawa tanpen shōsetsushū. Naha: Ryūkyūshimpōsha, 1993. 29-46.

---. Kinobori buta. Naha: Karuchuashuppan, 1996.

---. Ryōshi to utahime. Tokyo: Ushioshuppansha, 2009.

Oitate, Masatsugu. “A Comparative Study of Local Symbols in Ralph Ellison’s ‘Flying Home’ and Eiki Matayoshi’s ‘Buta no mukui’.” Okinawa International University Journal of Foreign Languages. 6 (2003): 143-160.

Okamoto, Keitoku. Gendai bungaku ni miru Okinawa no jigazō. Tokyo: Kōbunkan, 1996. Print.

Uno, Kenji. “A Study on ‘The Reward of the Pig’.” Bulletin of Hijiyama University. 3 (1996): 31-45.

Van Der Vorst, Gwendoline. “A Consideration of Okinawan Utaki.” The preceedings of the sixty-seventh annual convention of the Japanese Association for Religious Studies. 11 (2009):465-467. Web. 25 Jun. 2014. < http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110007098057>.

Wikipedia contributors. “Eiki Matayoshi.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 4 Feb. 2014. Web. 24 Jun. 2014.

Yonaha, Fumiya. “Geigan.” Kuchibue ha itsumo kuromaniyons. 21 Dec. 2011. Web. 25 Jun. 2014.

Original report by Tomon Chiharu. Revised and edited by Kasumi Sminkey.